X-rays
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Apr 11, 2024 06:05 AM
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Xrays_Lecture 1什么是医学影像?Mathematical EquationsIonizing RadiationGeneration of X-raysX-rays energy Spectrum💫重要:Propagation of X-rays in TissueHalf value Layer 半值层例题1X-rays Image InterpretationExerciseXrays_Lecture 2X-rays equipmentAnti-scatter grid 防散射滤线栅/防散射栅格DetectorsContrast Agents 造影剂Selected Applications of X-rays imaging techniquesBreast MammographyDigital Subtraction Angiography DSADigital FluoroscopyX-rays Computed Tomography
Xrays_Lecture 1
什么是医学影像?
- Medical imaging is a measure of contrast.
- It provides an output image (2D) or a volume (3D).
- Have the ability to distinguish contrast from noise.
- Contrast is the response of different tissues.
- It’s a living system.
Final important remark: Medical Imaging is a perturbation of the system under study.

Rethink: 从波到粒子的转换,光的波粒二象性
Mathematical Equations
速度=波长×频率
Plank’s equation for energy:
普朗克常数,
能量单位电子伏特 eV

图:氢和钨的能量级图,KLMN依次往下数
ps. 我记得这东西有公式来着,哪两个能级的比是什么数字的平方,高中物理,挖个坑
Ionizing Radiation
Any form of energy that can cause an atom to lose one or more electrons is called ionizing radiation.
In quantum mechanics, if an atom loses an electron from its inner shell, this electron must be replaced from an electron coming from one of the outer shells, say L or M. The energy difference between the K-shell and the L- or M-shell (which is a positive energy) is emitted via electromagnetic radiation. (是需要电离辐射触发?还是说能量差变为了电离辐射?)
Example: for a tungsten atom (see previous figure), a transition between levels L and K would result into the emission of an electromagnetic radiation of energy equal to the difference − = −11 𝑘𝑒𝑉 − −69.5 𝑘𝑒𝑉 = 58.5 𝑘𝑒𝑉. A transition between M and K would emit an electromagnetic radiation of energy − = −2.5 𝑘𝑒𝑉 − −69.5 𝑘𝑒𝑉 = 67 𝑘𝑒𝑉.
As a rule of thumb, you have to remember that the ionizing threshold is around 10 eV.
Generation of X-rays
Two main mechanisms: Bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation.
轫致辐射 特征辐射

记住各个组件:阴极,阳极,真空管,加速电压,铅屏蔽et.al.
- Electrons are generated at the cathode (tube current a few mA to 1000 mA).
- 阴极加热至2000℃,用钨丝(寿命几千小时)
- 加速
- 轰击阳极产生X-rays,每次几秒(exposure time 曝光时间)
X-rays energy Spectrum

x轴是能量,y轴是产生的x-ray的数量(但是别忘了有阈值,左下角一块是没有的)
前后是轫致辐射,中间特征辐射

轫致辐射,电子被吸引导致稍微偏转,能量↓,损失的能量作为光子释放
因为随地大小变,所以轫致辐射的频谱连续
特征辐射值则相对固定
特征辐射如右图:
电子轰击,与内层电子碰撞
然后留出来一个空位
外围电子补位
能量差,作为光电子释放
(所以就是那几个KLMN层的差值)

由能量守恒,射出来的光子能量,与入射的电子相关,所以:

力大才能砖飞
💫重要:Propagation of X-rays in Tissue
1.Photo-electric effect 光电效应

左图:入射的光子,导致释放电子,电子能量为光子能量减去电子所在位置的势能(不知道这个表达是否严谨)
右图:K能级缺少的位置,L能级跃迁并释放能量,以此类推,产生多个能级的电磁波
然后各个组织的又不同,产生的光电效应概率不同
骨骼(高Z值)和软组织(低Z值),产生了不同的对比度
2.Compton scattering 康普顿散射/效应
X射线与外层电子相互作用,外层电子射出(并立即被组织吸收),X射线稍微偏转
在这种情况下,X射线不被吸收

衰减系数,单位一般是1/cm之类的,
但是材料对这东西影响挺大的,所以一个公式概况就是:


左图:能量与光电效应、康普顿效应的关系
右图:X射线能量与物质的关系。在骨部位有,它的K-edge处PE效应急剧增长,于是出现了区分度
Half value Layer 半值层

The HVL is the thickness of tissue which reduces the intensity of the X-ray beam by a factor of one-half.
HVL是组织的厚度,它将x射线束的强度降低一半。
例题1

Q:为什么最后一行的0.2和0.04是乘算?
A:可以理解为两部分分别衰减后剩余的百分比为0.2和0.04,所以乘算
X-rays Image Interpretation
A typical x-ray image will have bright regions (almost white) corresponding to body parts which attenuate the most and dark regions (almost black) corresponding to body parts which don’t attenuate much (e.g. air in the lungs). Soft tissue will mostly appear as middle gray.
最重要的是弄清楚,什么情况衰减的多/少,信号强度高/低,个人理解比PPT更重要
Exercise

这是来自Lecture 2的一道思考题,但我个人认为放在这里更加合适 对于本题,两个不同能量的X光射入,由于人体组织的吸收,到达探测器的X光减少,因此低能量的X光到达探测器的数量更少,而背景,也就是完全黑色的部分,是有最多光到达的(毕竟没有遮挡),所以越黑的地方能量越高,因此左图是140keV,右侧基本没多少透过去的,是50keV
以上内容错误,勘误:
并不是因为能量不足,因为50keV已经足够成像了,140keV会产生大量的康普顿散射造成伪影,使得白色光晕互相重叠导致图像不清晰
Xrays_Lecture 2
X-rays equipment
Collimator 准直器
Lead(铅) selecting the FOV (field of view) for X-ray imaging.
Lead has a high value of the attenuation coefficient (that’s ), thus it practically absorbs all X-rays.
指定方向,能够防止X光乱窜(

Anti-scatter grid 防散射滤线栅/防散射栅格
由于康普顿效应,X-rays被散射偏转(左图中虚线)
这个东西放在病人和探测器之间


- Compton scattering creates a random background signal that penalizes the image (diffused white halo on the image), especially at higher energies where photoelectric interactions are less dominant.

Sometimes the anti-scatter grid is called an anti-scatter collimator (防散射准直器).
Detectors
X-ray film
(plastic) with a photosensitive emulsion
Sensitive to both X-rays and light
Grains of silver halide (AgBr & Agl) bound in a gelatin base.

上下是感光乳剂(emulsion),中间是基底(卤化银)
Film-Screen Cassettes
Film has a low sensitivity to X-rays.
A lot of X-rays are needed to properly expose film.

使用加强屏幕,提高灵敏度
Morden detectors
Two main categories of detectors exist:
- Computed Radiography (CR)
Plant (phosphor crystals) 平板荧光粉晶体
ps. 翻译为“荧光粉”貌似不严谨
Brief digression on Luminescence:
- Fluorescence: (visible) light is emitted when the detector is excited by photons (here X-rays). Emission stops when the excitation stops. (X射线停止,发光停止)
- Phosphorescence: (visible) light is emitted when the detector is excited by photons (here X-rays). Emission continues after the excitation stops. (X射线停止,发光继续)
从这里看来,也许是“磷光粉”更贴切?
摘自知乎: 磷光:发光体在激发停止后,受激发的粒子在高能级(带)中弛豫振荡并逐渐跃迁到基态的过程中而自发辐射的光。 荧光:物质在紫外线、X射线、电子线等激发下释放出来的可见光。
原来是有不同种类的光发出,有待进一步研究
回到正题,X射线穿过人体进入到荧光板,与荧光板发生光电效应
A latent image is formed: it means that the image is present, but it needs to be retrieved.
于是使用:
激光二极管,进行光激发发光(photo-stimulated luminescence),然后用光电二极管收集信息(就是上面那个latent image)
收集到的信号放大滤波,变成了数字信号
与此同时还原了这个板子(重复使用)

- Digital Radiography:
Indirect detectors
X光→可见光→电压
Direct detectors
X光→电压
DR相比于CR,有高信噪比(SNR),更高效
间接探测器:
X-rays are first converted into (green) light by a scintillation crystal. A scintillation crystal (闪烁晶体) is some material which converts X-ray into visible light.
使用二维二极管阵列,每一个光电二极管对应一个像素
直接探测器:
光电导体层,直接将X光的强度转化为电流
This technology has become accepted for mammography because of its improved image quality at higher spatial frequencies compared to scintillator based detectors.
Summary:

好难记
Contrast Agents 造影剂
Increase contrast between tissues/structures, with the minimum possible side-effects.
主要应用:胃肠(GI)部分,血流
肠胃部分使用钡(Barium),区域高亮
血液部分使用碘基(Iodine-based),静脉注射,增加血液的衰减
Typical application is digital subtraction angiography(数字减影血管造影术).
不同的是,在这种情况下,血管颜色变深
Selected Applications of X-rays imaging techniques
Breast Mammography
Molybdenum (钼) is normally used in place of tungsten (钨) to have low energy X-ray spectrum to avoid Compton scattering.
低能量,避免康普顿散射
但是因为低能量,所以需要压缩乳房,改善透射率

Digital Subtraction Angiography DSA
能够产生非常高分辨率的体内脉管系统,直径小于 100 微的小血管
Simple idea: acquire first “regular” X-ray image, then acquire second X-ray image after contrast injection (iodine)
- 获得原图像
- 获得加入造影剂的图像
- 数值相减,得到造影剂区域图像
Digital Fluoroscopy
It uses continuous/periodic emission of X-rays.
It is used to monitor interventional surgery.
X-rays Computed Tomography
X光:一个源,一个探测器,位置不变,丢失深度(方向)信息
CT:转着拍,重建
两者的图像重建过程不同,但本质原理一样,都是靠衰减区分
CT探测器通常基于将X射线转换为光(闪烁晶体),然后通过光电二极管将光转换为电压。这些是我们在上一讲中简要讨论的数字射线照相探测器。
为衰减系数,以水为基准,所以空气的CT值为-1000,水的CT值为0
而骨骼和软组织的CT值为阳性(>0)

计算不同投影下的CT值,求和
原因是,最后使用CT值,与衰减系数非线性正相关(因为有水的衰减值)
从不同方向进行衰减,为值进行求和()然后得出某一方向的CT值